Civil Rights Timeline: Jan. 15, 1929 - Dec. 21, 1956 :: American Civil Rights

Civil Rights Timeline Jan. 15, 1929 - Dec. 21, 1956Jan. 15, 1929 - Dr. King is born - Born on Jan. 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Ga., he was the second of three children of the Rev. Michael (later Martin) and Alberta Williams King. Sept. 1, 1954 - Dr. King becomes pastor - In 1954, King accepted his first pastorate--theDexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Ala. He and his wife, Coretta Scott King, whom he had met and married (June 1953) while at Boston University.Dec. 1, 1955 - Rosa put defies city segregation - Often called the mother of the civil rights movement, Rosa Louise McCauley Parks, b. Tuskegee, Ala., Feb. 4, 1913, sparked the 381-day Montgomery bus boycott that led to a 1956 Supreme butterfly order outlawing prejudiced practices on Montgomery buses. In December 1955, returning home from her assistant tailor job in Montgomery, Parks refused a bus drivers order to abdicate her seat to a white man. She was jailed and fined $14.Dec. 5, 1955 - Montgomery bus boycott- A lthough precipitated by the arrest of RosaParks, the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955-56 was actually a collective response to decades of intimidation, harassment and discrimination of Alabamas African American population. By 1955, judicial decisions were still the principal means of struggle for civil rights, even though picketing, limit and boycotts sometimes punctuated the litigation. The boycott, which lasted for more than a year, was almost 100 percent effective. Dec. 21, 1956 - Bus segregation declared illegal - The boycotts succeeded indesegregating public facilities in the South and in any case in obtaining civil rightslegislation from Congress. Civil Rights Timeline Sept. 24, 1957 - May 2, 1963Sept. 24, 1957 - School integration - In September 1957 the state received nationalattention when Gov. Orval E. Faubus (in office 1955-67) time-tested to prevent the integration of small(a) Rock Central High School. President Dwight D. Eisenhower quickly intervened, in part by s ending federal troops to Little Rock, and several black students were enrolled at Central High School. Aug. 19, 1958 - Student sit-ins - In spite of the events in Little Rock or Montgomery, orSupreme Court decisions, segregation still pervaded American society by 1960. While protests and boycotts achieved moderate successes in desegregating aspects of education and transportation, other facilities such as restaurants, theaters, libraries, amusement parks and churches any barred or limited access to African Americans, or maintained separate, invariably inferior, facilities for black patrons.

An Account of the Nicaraguan Revolution :: Free Essays Online

An Account of the Nicaraguan Revolution 1. Augusto Cesar Guerras dark eyes suddenly lose the cordial and pragmatic aspect they had sustained during the initial proceedings of our conversation. His gaze then slowly shifts from my own eyes to the ceiling and, not being fixed on a specific point, it begins to drift, seemingly toward a division by far removed from the present place and time. 2. So you want to know about the Revolution, he utters as if from a distance, his appearance acquiring a thoughtful expression that unveils a man who, asked to recall unsettling events, is forced to evoke the pain caused by wounds healed long before. 3. Guerra then becomes silent, apparently overwhelmed by his memories, and I fix my stare upon him I notice a bronzed complexion despite the recent Washington, D.C winter, which hes endured in its entirety a thick body defied by a slim face, motionless beneath dark, black hair, cut somewhat short yet curling amply on the top of his head a dens e beard stemming from the sideburns that leaves uncovered only the top of his cheeks, which are made to protrude somewhat by the bones beneath the fairly darkened skin. As I stare at the man in front of me, I cant help but think of the mix of the races that, Centuries before, created the essence of our Continent a fit between the European Southerners, already permanently touched by the Mediterranean sun, and a Civilization of candid primitives who welcomed their guests without knowing their own benevolence would cause the haste of their gods and their ways. I then look around me, notice the frames hanging on the wall of El Tamarindo, an Adams Morgan Salvadorean restaurant, and, like Guerra, am taken elsewhere I see immense Churches, modeled after those in Spain and towering from the center of a village plaza frequented by the short descendants of the great tribes a fisherman in a canoe built out of rotting wood whose smile reveals a wise and ageless simplicity the ancient designs conservatively worked upon the fine cloth of a hammock the rich fruits that are unique to our soil the Caribbeans crystalline blue and emerald serenity all visions that rekindle the element of a previous life that I suspect most of us who have migrated from the South are at some point forced to relinquish.An Account of the Nicaraguan Revolution Free Essays OnlineAn Account of the Nicaraguan Revolution 1. Augusto Cesar Guerras dark eyes suddenly lose the cordial and pragmatic aspect they had sustained during the initial minutes of our conversation. His gaze then slowly shifts from my own eyes to the ceiling and, not being fixed on a specific point, it begins to drift, seemingly toward a kingdom by far removed from the present place and time. 2. So you want to know about the Revolution, he utters as if from a distance, his appearance acquiring a thoughtful expression that unveils a man who, asked to recall unsettling events, is forced to evoke the pain caused by wounds h ealed long before. 3. Guerra then becomes silent, apparently overwhelmed by his memories, and I fix my stare upon him I notice a bronzed complexion despite the recent Washington, D.C winter, which hes endured in its entirety a thick body defied by a slim face, motionless beneath dark, black hair, cut somewhat short yet curling amply on the top of his head a dense beard stemming from the sideburns that leaves uncovered only the top of his cheeks, which are made to protrude somewhat by the bones beneath the fairly darkened skin. As I stare at the man in front of me, I cant help but think of the mix of the races that, Centuries before, created the essence of our Continent a give way between the European Southerners, already permanently touched by the Mediterranean sun, and a Civilization of candid primitives who welcomed their guests without knowing their own benevolence would cause the declension of their gods and their ways. I then look around me, notice the frames hanging on the wall of El Tamarindo, an Adams Morgan Salvadorean restaurant, and, like Guerra, am taken elsewhere I see immense Churches, modeled after those in Spain and towering from the center of a village plaza frequented by the short descendants of the great tribes a fisherman in a canoe built out of rotting wood whose smile reveals a wise and ageless simplicity the ancient designs conservatively worked upon the fine cloth of a hammock the rich fruits that are unique to our soil the Caribbeans crystalline blue and emerald serenity all visions that rekindle the element of a previous life that I suspect most of us who have migrated from the South are at some point forced to relinquish.

Oedipus and Tiresias :: Essays Papers

Oedipus and TiresiasOedipus and Tiresias, characters of Sophocles play Oedipus Tyrannus, are propelled to their individual destinies by their peculiar relationships with truth. Paranoid and quick to anger Oedipus, is markedly different from the confident and self-assured Tiresias. In the dialogue between the two men, Oedipus rapidly progresses from praise of Tiresias as a champion and protector of Thebes in line 304, to blatantly accusing the blind vaticinator of betraying the city in line 331, to angrily insulting him in line 334. Rather than be intimidated by the protagonists title and temperament, Tiresias draws strength from what he knows is true(a) and is able to stand his ground.In this play, power and strength come from the knowledge of truth. Ironically, blind Tiresias, who has the ability to see the truth, becomes en hard workerd to his own knowledge. Knowing the truth about Oedipus enlists him in the designs of fate as the catalyst of Oedipus destructive revelation. The p rophet takes strength in knowing what he knows is true but, as he says in line 316, he is not able to profit from the knowledge. Forced into dispute with the king of Thebes, by playing off of the anxieties of the main character, the simple power of knowing what another does not know protects Tiresias.Gradually Tiresias and Oedipus relationships with the truth are revealed as that of knowledge and ignorance, respectively. The anxieties that plague Oedipus, making him weak and prone to paranoia, are rooted in the obscurity of his origins. In response to accusations made by Oedipus, Tiresias declares that he is neither a conspirator in a scheme concocted by Oedipus paranoid mind, nor his supplicant. Rather, Tiresias states that he is a hard worker of Loxias the ambiguous one.In whatever manner the mechanics of Tiresias prophetic sight function, to understand the nature of truth, they must include deciphering the ambiguous. As a true slave of Loxias, he is incapable of directly telling Oedipus the truth but always speaks enigmatically. An extreme annoyance to Oedipus, such seemingly vague speech may be the only way that the truth may be expressed. Tiresias is thus fluent in the language of truth and is speaking to Oedipus, who claims to excel in deciphering riddles, in the clearest manner. Tiresias knows who Oedipus parents are, and he knows that the revelation of Oedipus genealogy will cause the foundations of Oedipus identity to crumble, simultaneously destroying one man and causing another man to come into being.

Letters From A War Zone :: essays research papers

"Letters from a War Zone" deals with the controversybetween men and women banning pornography. In thisessay there ar many another(prenominal) strong personal views on pornographyand the brutality of women in porn. Men and women havebeen at war for many years because of this. I agree withbanning pornography because pornography lures men intodisrespecting women. This essay makes me angry because itshows another part of life that is real not acknowledged. Itseems realistic to me because many women in life areconfronted with sex at an early age and become vulnerable.The unique thing that reaches me is how women do not havea choice, especially when it comes down to sex.Vulnerability is one of a womans weaknesses. Pornographyis degrading to women when it is forced upon them. If sexwere done for pleasure or because the women wanted to, itwould not be as bad. That is how many women are raped,killed or lose their confidence. Women in pornography weretypically prostitutes at one- point. Due to statistics, more thanhalf the women in a sex-related professions have beensexually abused, molested or raped at one time during theirlies. The quote stated in this essay that really hits home is"make in South America where life is cheap." I, as aHispanic, am terribly offended by this statement. Thisstatement basically says that South America has manylowlives, and that anything can happen to them because lifethere is worth very little. For example the women of SouthAmerica are used in Snuff films and in transparent photographs.Snuff is a film that consists of a woman being sexuallyharassed, raped, and killed. In many of these films/photosthe women are brutalized to the point where their breasts aredismantled and their bodies are urinated on after they areraped and killed. There are photographs in which womensbreasts are slammed in rat traps, their vaginas are stuffedwith knives, guns, and even glass, and then they aregang-banged, beaten, and tortured. Snuff fil ms are usuallymade in South America because, as said in the statementabove, life is not worth much there. "If you are breathing out to hurta women in the United States be sure to photograph it" is acontroversial statement used in this essay. Its means that ifyou have slain, hurt, or abused a woman it is all right, as longyou have taken a picture. The photograph expresses a pointof view, sacrosanct in a free society. When thesepicture/films are being taken the woman is forced to smile.This will make the picture/films protected by the constitution,

Wind Power :: essays papers

Wind PowerThe twine turbine, also called a tingemill, is a elbow room of harnessing thekinetic energy of the wind and converting it into electrical energy. Thisis accomplished by turning blades called aerofoils, which drive a shaft,which drive a motor (turbine) and ar e affiliated to a generator. It isestimated that the total power capacity of winds surrounding the earth is1 x 1011 Gigawatts (Cheremisinoff 6). The total energy of the windsfluctuates from year to year. Windmill expert Richard Hills said that thewind really is a fickle source of power, with wind speeds to low orinconsistent for the windmill to be of practical use. However, thathasnt stopped windmill engineers from trying. Today, there atomic number 18 manykinds of windmills, some of which serve differen t functions. They are acomplex alternative energy source. What to consider when public figureing a windmill In choosing where to word form awindmill, there are many important factors to consider. First is thelocation 1) Available wind energy is usually higher near the seacoast orcoasts of very large lakes and offshore islands. 2) Available wind energyis gene rally high in the central plains region of the U.S. because of thewide expanses of level (low bug out roughness) terrain. 3) Available windenergy is generally low throughout the Southeastern U.S. except forcertain hills in the Appalachian and Blue Rid ge Mountains, the marriageCarolina coast, and the Southern tip of Florida. This is because of theinfluence of the Bermuda high pressure system, which is a factorespecially during the summer. Also important to consider is the windwhere you are going to build 1) the mean wind speed (calculated mycubing the averages and taking the mean of the cubes) and its seasonalvariations. 2) The probability distribution of wind speed and of extremewi nds. The mean wind speed essential be high enough, and the distribution mustbe so that all the data points are very similar. 3) The heigh t variationof wind speed and wind direction. Wind cannot be too high or too low inrelation to the ground or it is too difficult to harness. 4) The gustiness of the wind issue in both speed and direction. Gusty winds greatly affect the power output of thewindmills and are usually harmful. 5) The wind direction distribution andprobability of abrupt large shifts in di rection. The wind must beunlikely to suddenly shift direction.

Wind Power :: essays papers

Wind PowerThe wind turbine, also c completelyed a windmill, is a means of harnessing thekinetic energy of the wind and converting it into electrical energy. Thisis accomplished by bit blades called aerofoils, which drive a shaft,which drive a motor (turbine) and ar e connected to a brokerrator. It isestimated that the total business leader capacity of winds surrounding the earth is1 x 1011 Gigawatts (Cheremisinoff 6). The total energy of the windsfluctuates from year to year. Windmill expert Richard Hills said that thewind really is a fickle source of power, with wind speeds to down(p) orinconsistent for the windmill to be of practical use. However, thathasnt stopped windmill engineers from trying. Today, there are manykinds of windmills, some of which serve differen t functions. They are a multi geneial alternative energy source. What to consider when building a windmill In choosing where to build awindmill, there are many important factors to consider. First is the post 1) Available wind energy is usually higher near the seacoast orcoasts of very large lakes and offshore islands. 2) Available wind energyis gene rally high in the central plains region of the U.S. because of thewide expanses of level (low surface roughness) terrain. 3) Available windenergy is generally low throughout the south U.S. except forcertain hills in the Appalachian and Blue Rid ge Mountains, the NorthCarolina coast, and the Southern tip of Florida. This is because of theinfluence of the Bermuda high pressure system, which is a factorespecially during the summer. Also important to consider is the windwhere you are going to build 1) the mean wind speed (calculated mycubing the averages and taking the mean of the cubes) and its seasonalvariations. 2) The luck distribution of wind speed and of extremewi nds. The mean wind speed must be high enough, and the distribution mustbe so that all the data points are very similar. 3) The height variationof wind speed and wind dir ection. Wind cannot be too high or too low inrelation to the ground or it is too difficult to harness. 4) The gustiness of the wind field in both speed and direction. Gusty winds greatly affect the power output of thewindmills and are usually harmful. 5) The wind direction distribution andprobability of sudden large shifts in di rection. The wind must beunlikely to on the spur of the moment shift direction.

Describe the Different Stakeholders

Kentucky Fried Chicken There are many stakeholders of KFC the main ones are Employees, Customers, preservation services, undertake vendition Companies, suppliers and Contracted Cleaning Companies. Employees- Employees are important stakeholders in the business as they provide the service to the customer who eats at KFC. Without well adept provide the business would not run smoothly. The interest of the staff would be to make sure they have a secure job and a loyal wage.If employees feel they are being treated poorly they give be less enthusiastic towards work. Customers- Without customers going to KFC it would not make profit and eventually go bust. Customers interest in KFC would be to go to their restaurant to have a fast food meal in which they enjoy. Delivery services- Delivery services expand the product and services for the customers. Without delivery services being on time and well ran KFC would not have the stock that is needed. Contracted Vending companies- Their inter est would be to supply their product to KFC so they sell it on and get their product in the restaurants. Contacted Cleaning Companies- They would insure that KFC stays hygienic and the role of the company is good. Employees- Employees are important stakeholders in the business as they provide the service to the customer who travels via Translink. Without the staff being able to do their job the right way the company would not run according to plan. If the staff do not do their job correctly it will not insure they stay in the work place.Related essay What Can Business Learn From Text Mining?Customers- Translink supply a service to the people of Northern Ireland which are customers. Customers arent as important to Translink as they are to KFC as Translink is government run and does not make a profit. Even if customers dont use Translink it will not go bust as everyone pays taxs to keep it running. Bus/ Train manufactures- They want to insure Translink are running well so they have another company that will buy new equipment off them. Contracted Cleaning Companies- Translink will spend a certain amount of specie each year to provide a clean station and equipment this will make sure of a tidy company and will keep customers feeler back. G4S security company- G4S want to keep their contract with Translink as this will make them a profit. They are contracted so that the stations are safe and the staff feel secure. Local Shops- They would want Translink to be close to their shops so that commuters going and coming off the Train or Bus to go to their shops.

Justice, Crime and Ethics Essay

Justice is mainly concerned with the appropriate ordering of persons and things within the society. Thus when whiz is aggrieved by another person, he or she is supposed to seek justice to be administered on the person who has violate the rights of the other. Thus the person whose rights argon violated is not supposed to take law on his hands and punish the person who has violated his rights but is supposed to seek justice from competent bodies in the land which have the mandate of administering justice.This is very important to the society as it enables the members of the society to live in harmony and to have standard means by which they can seek legal redress (McCarthy, & McCarthy, 2001). Crime can be regarded as actions that lead to the violation of the set rules and regulations which have been set by the government. A crime can also arise as a result of a persons behavior deviating from the prevailing norms as set by cultural standards which stipulate the manner in which the be havior of human being ought to be.When a crime is committed to a person in respect to personal or private rights a civil crime is said to have taken place whereas when the nature of the crime is that which violates public law then a criminal offence is said to have taken place. For the society to live in an orderly manner there is need for existence of laws that govern the expatriate of its members so that no member of the society has his rights violated and in case they are violated then there should be competent means by which they are addressed (McCarthy, & McCarthy, 2001).Read moreJustice Denied is Justice DelayedEthics basically refers to a situation where one feels under duty to suffer goodly, in so doing a person avoids acting in a manner that is likely to cause harm to other people within the society. Actions which are ethically motivated results into a situation where majority of the society members are affected by such decisions in positive way. Ethics addresses the det ermination of moral values, how it is possible to attain the desired moral outcomes, how moral agency or capacity develops in certain situations and the kind of moral values that members of the society should dwell by (McCarthy, & McCarthy, 2001).The criminal justice process is a procedure through which the person who is responsible for violating the laws of the land is actually sued in order to determine whether the supposed person actually committed the offence as claimed by the plaintiff. This is usually done in a court of law where the defendant is given a chance to defend himself. The court then determines whether the defendant is guilty or not before passing its judgment (McCarthy, & McCarthy, 2001).

Is Now the Time for Reparations for African Americans

The idea of reparations stems from the argument that African the Statesns should receive compensation for their unpaid labor, captivity, and the ongoing discriminations. Slavery did provide the means for whites to build wealthiness, income, and status opus African Americans have continued to struggle. The oppression of segregation and the lack of rights made it impossible for African Americans to have any political and economic power to stir their position.African Americans were unable to vote and use the power giving medication to better their situation, like the Irish immigrants did in New York, until the Voting Rights Act was passed in 1965 and that only allowed acquit black men to vote. The reparations for African Americans debate has caused to a greater extent disagreements than affirmative action has. On one side people believe that reparations are not pertinent because it is so strenuous to identify the victims of slavery or punish those who committed the crime especiall y when they may be no longer around.They also retrieve that reparations would have a negative effect on future racial grievances and the U. S. treasury. On the other side it has been argued that reparations are necessary to reach an economically tolerable society and reparations is the correct way of dealing with past wrong doings and the current racial inequalities in the United States. Robert L. Allen is in favor of reparations for African Americans. He believes that the problems that African Americans currently face are acquiring property, income and accumulating wealth and that these are a direct result of slavery and segregation.Allen says that reparations can be the start of redistribution of wealth in America so the economic equality between blacks and whites can be less dramatic. African Americans have been fighting for reparations as early as 1854. The reparations were asking for redress of our grievances for the unparalleled wrongs, undisguised impositions, and unmitigat ed oppression which blacks have suffered at the hands of American people. An anti-slave activist, Sojourner Truth, campaigned to receive free public land for causality slaves after the Civil War. In the 1890s, Callie House filed a lawsuit for reparations.A pastor of Third Baptist Church in San Francisco, named Reverend Amos Brown, asked for reparations by way of tax credit and tuition for higher education. In its program for establishing a separate state the Nation of Islam demanded reparations stating that cause slave masters are obligated to provide minerally comfortable and fertile land. securenesss were also desired by the Black Panther Party in tier Ten Point Program. Pointing out in Point bout Three that forty acres and two mules was promised one hundred years ago and would like to receive payment in cash to distribute among the society.In 1969, in New York City, former SNCC leader James Forman presented a Black Manifesto to Riverside Church requesting five hundred mill ion dollars in reparations from white Christian Churches and Jewish synagogues. Forman wrote in The Making of Black Revolutionaries that reparations that were being asked were not only monetary but were also for revolutionary action toward the attitude of white America towards Blacks. The money would be used to help black farmers, businesses, community organization and research on black economic development.In 1968 the Republic of New Africa was founded to establish an self-supporting Black Republic in the southern states with the largest African American population. In 1972 the Republic of New Africa developed an Anti-Depression Program that asked for three hundred billion dollars in reparations to establish self-sustaining communities as a part of an independent black nation. The Republic of New Africa stated that with reparations it is common that one nation pay another(prenominal) to compensate for damage caused by unjust acts of war and that is what has happened to the African nation in America.The programs did make much progress but drew attention in good and bad ways. I believe that African Americans should get reparations but the attitudes of the ones that oppressed them have been to dismiss or undermined them and not show any blame. The depicted object Black Political Convention supported reparations, stating that the poverty of black communities is traceable to slavery and the discrimination that blacks have faced in America. That wealth, power, and groovyism of America was reinforced off of the exploitation of black people. A white law professor names Boris Bitker wrote a booked called The Case for Black Reparations in 1973.Instead of demanding reparations based on the injustice of slavery, Bitker argued to seek reparations for injuries caused by a system of legally imposed segregation that violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. That segregation and the Jim exuberate laws founded in 1954 were unconstitutional and ther efore subject to redress. Economists, following the lead of Robert S. Browne, produced work on the economics of slavery, the present assess of past labor performed by slaves, the value of black labor since emancipation and racial disparities in distribution of wealth.From a political economic standpoint Robert Allen believes the process of underdevelopment of the African American community and the purpose of the state are vital in understanding the quest for reparations. The author of How Capitalism Underdeveloped Black America, Manning Marable, argued that capitalism is the root cause of the underdevelopment of black America, mend the wealth from slave labor has increased the development of North America economically and politically.He wrote in his book that capitalist development has occurred because of black exploitation and African Americans have never been equal in the American Social Contract because the system exists to under develop Black people. This is true but that is are more opportunities for African Americans to pull themselves out of poverty but that doesnt mean that it is correct to leave large communities in that situation.The underdeveloped African American community was established by the restriction of black labor in slavery and underclass work, the restriction and twisted development of African American business and pedestal ownership, the regressive political leadership, destruction of black education, racist violence, and the incarceration of black youth. As Marable also stated in his book and had support from many others, that the single-valued function of the state played an important part in the black communities underdevelopment. The state was directly involved in taking the value from black workers and blocked the capital accumulation by Black people.Laws establishing that black labor could be abused without compensation or punishment have been passed since the earliest colonial period. Slavery existed in the Virginia colonies in the 1640s and it because institutionalized by 1660s. P401 Edward Fagan, a New York Lawyer, started a campaign against companies that have he thinks have profited from slavery. He is targeting at least 60 companies about which are Lehman Brothers, New York Life, Aetna, Liggett, and Norfolk Southern. He is filling suits on behalf of all descendants of slaves in America and the defendants are the legal successors of entities that existed and profited during slavery.Economists plead ill gotten gain in the trillions that is asked for but Fagan expects the settlement to be in the tens of billions. Along with a black activist by the name of Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, Mr. Fagan bases is plan on two main things, lobbying the government to pay its share and for a few companies to grow tired of the lawsuits and pays off. Congress made payouts in the sum of one point sextette billion dollars to cardinal thousand Japanese-Americans were placed in camps during the Second World War. The Germa n government also made reparations to Israel for its role in the Holocaust. Mr.Fagan and other lawyers sued German companies on behalf of former slave laborers. Two of the suits were dismissed as a matter of foreign policy but New York regulators along with hundreds of local authorities threatened Deutsche camber and other businesses to regulatory sanctions. The firms and the German government created a fund of five point two billion dollars which is being disbursed. The case may be undermined by the money because every dollar that should have been paid to slaves one hundred and fifty years ago can be worth anywhere from six thousand dollars to four hundred thousand dollars.It is also hard to assess the profits that the banks and insurers received from slavery. To overtake these obstacles Mr. Fagan thinks that public opinion can play in his favor, if there are boycotts, share mark offer lawsuits, and local politicians willing to hold hearings and study the impact of slavery in thei r jurisdiction. The challengers of reparations for African Americans typically do not claim the connection between Americas racist past and the underdeveloped black communities.They also think that the current generation of African Americans doesnt hold them accountable. There has been so much time that has passed since slavery and there is still so much animosity on both sides that I dont believe that the affair will never go away. The opponents of reparations actually think that the overall view of white Americans is that they no longer identify themselves the racist past of the United States. Reparation in the United States for African American slavery is a controversy that is surrounded by resistance. Word Count 1527

Cory Ng Edsa Reaction

TITLE Twilight Saga Breaking Dawn AUTHOR Stephenie Meyer regard BOOK WAS PUBLISHED August 2, 2008 GENRE Fantasy, Action and Romance I. SUMMARY MAIN CHARACTERS (a few words about them) Isabella Swan Isabella, who prefers to be c wholeed Bella, is a 17-year-old girl. She leaves Phoenix, genus Arizona to live with her father in Forks, Washington so her mother bottom travel with her new husband. She meets Edward Cullen in Forks High School and is immediately attracted to him. She later confesses to Edward what she has well-educated about him, which he admits to they venture into their forbidden love, with Edward fighting against his thirst for Bellas blood.Bella has a kind and awkward personality that is more mature than most girls her age. She is highly natural and observant, noticing and then formulating theories about the Cullens strange behaviors, physical features, and unusual abilities. At the novels beginning, Bella finds, the hardest part is making a decision, but once the decision is made, she bear easily follow. As the novel progresses, Bella unconsciously learns how to make difficult choices and accept their consequences. Edward Cullen Edward is a 104-year-old vampire who was transformed by Carlisle Cullen when he was near death with Spanish Influenza in 1918.He has a supernatural gift for reading peoples minds. When he met Bella, he was immediately attracted to her because her thoughts are unreadable to him, and in like manner to her strongly appealing blood scent. Edward tries to avoid Bella for deliver her rock-steadyty, but fails. He notices Bellas attraction to him and warns her that he is dangerous. Eventually, he confesses the truth about himself to her. Since Edwards transformation into a vampire, he had never fallen in love nor believed that he needed to. He later realizes that his existence was completely pointless and without an aim.In Bella he finds com temper, love, acceptance and care. In Twilight, Edward has a hopeless persona lity influenced by Meyers naturally pessimistic character. His character was also influenced by Mr. Rochester of Jane Eyre who also sees himself as a monster. James James is a vampire with an exceptional ability to track people, whether humans or vampires. His competitive character loves a challenge, and Bellas appealing scent incite him. When the Cullens react to defend her, James wants to take on biggest game of his lifehunting Bella, penetrative the Cullens will oppose him.James tracks Bella to Phoenix, and phones her to say that he has taken her mother hostage in a nearby ballet studio. Bella goes there, unaware that her mother is actually safe in Florida. In the studio, James bites Bella, injecting his venom into her wrist. The Cullens arrive in time to save her and destroy James. PLOT The story begins when, The first chapter, entitled Engaged, starts slay a few days before the conjugal union while Edward is off hunting leaving Bella home without him. Bella is driving a new expensive sports car, a Mercedes-Benz s600 Guardian.Edward gave it to her because her old 53 Chevy ultimately died. When she stops at a gas station, two men admire her car and tell her that the car hasnt been released in the unify States or Europen yet. She then goes home. Bella stays in her car and uses the cell phone, that again Edward bought her, to call bent Clearwater, a werewolf who Edward is now friends with after they fought Victoria. She asks how Jacob Black is doing. Seth tells her that Jacob, still is in his wolf form, is somewhere in Northern Canada and that he is not coming home.Bella is upset, because she near wants to see him again. She then has recollections of the night that she told Charlie about her engagement. When Bella had finally had the courage to tell her father, Charlie just assumed that Bella was pregnant. He also laughed hysterically when he realized how Bellas mother, Renee would react. But Bellas Mom as well ask the news well, and even offer to a nswer with the wedding plans Bella was shocked When Bella goes inside the house Alice is fitting Charlie into his tuxedo for the wedding, and then says that its Bellas turn.While she is being fitted by Alice, Bella thinks about Edward, and how nice it will be after the wedding, and the honeymoon. The wedding then make outs and goes rather quickly, and the book speeds into the honeymoon. Edward takes her to Isle Esme, a present from Carlisle to Esme, off the coast of Brazil. Edward also grants Bellas wish and makes love to her. The next day they argue because Edwards passion leaves dark bruises all over Bellas body. Although Bella doesnt care about the injuries, he insists that they spend their days doing tiring activities to make her too tired for nything at night. Meanwhile, she has a woolgather about a small, green-eyed boy that she feels compelled to protect. Bella also finds herself constantly hungry and sick It is only until she sees a box of unused tampons that she packed th at she realized that she is pregnant. She mechanically becomes attached to the baby, even thought it will kill her, and Edward is worried. They rush home to the Cullen mansion, but Bella has called upon Rosalie to help protect her baby, so Edward is not allowed to go through with an abortion. well-nigh of the story takes place (when and where)Most of the story of Breaking Dawn takes place in Forks, Washington at the Cullen house and in Bella and Edwards new cottage in the woods. Theres also a short jump to Isle Esme, just off the coast of Brazil, where Edward and Bella spend their honeymoon. The main events and problems that happen are Bella and Edward get married and have a kid together. The volturi try to kill the kid but it ends up being okay. The problem in this story is when Bella becomes pregnant with Edwards child during honey moon and once Edward tells her they will get rid of it she calls Rosalie for help.She loves this baby even though it is just in her stomach at the mom ent and even though the baby is killing her she wont get rid of it and if anyone tries, Rosalie will take care of them. After Bellas baby is born the Volturi decide that they need to get rid of the Cullens as they are gaining too much power. They realise that saying Bellas baby is unsafe to the world of vampires and keeping it a secret would be a perfect oportunity to do this. So the Volturi come and instead of the usual fighting battle it is a battle of the minds. The story end whenWell, in the last part of Breaking Dawn Bella and Edward tuck their daughter, Renesmee, to bed. It was a happy ending The Volturi left the Cullen in peace thanks to Alice Edward heard Bellas thought for the first time as she learnt how to push away her shield for a few seconds. And Renesmee will be with Edward and Bella FOREVER II. AUTHORS MAIN IDEA I think the author was trying to say that, that never lose hope just because things are really bad III. SPECIAL FEATURE One part of the book that makes it s pecial (or weakens it) is, When Bella and Edward get married. IV. YOUR OPINIONThis book made me feel that, Life can bring you surprises , but tou must nit give up Wait until marriage before you have sex. No abortion, prasie your child, save and protect your child at all costs. Defend what is right, what you believe in. Help your friends defend what is right, what they believe in. and Good triumphs over evil. I would/would not recommend this book beacause, I would recommend this book because it is precise interesting. We can learn many things about fantasy like vampires, how they live in their life everyday. So we should spend time reading books so we can develop our comprehensive skills.

Break-even analysis Essay

INTRODUCTIONEvery guilds corporate managers relieve oneself a end of maximizing shargonholder wealth. However, stipulation that no obvious, single course of action leads to fulfillment of that goal, managers must choose specic course of action and develop plans and get winds to pursue that course. Beca apply planning is future oriented, disbelief exists and development helps reduce that un definitety. Controlling is making actual performance align with plans, and information is necessary in that process. Much of the information managers hire to plan and control reects relationships among mathematical product salute, selling sets, and gross r eventideue volumes.Changing sensation of these essential components in the gross revenue mix will cause veers in different components. Focuses on analyzing how volume, cost, prot helps in send foring future conditions (planning) as well as in explaining, evaluating, and acting on results (controlling). Before generating prot a fa miliarity must rst reach its break-even express, which means that it must generate sucient sales tax to cover solely cost? .By linking cost behavior and sales volume, managers git use the break even abstract. Information deliver the goodsd by these BEP analyses helps managers focus on the implications that volume changes would have an impact on organizational protability epitome. My objective is to analyze the end point BEP abstract in a boarder sense with contrary be concepts and other related to matters which argon needed to calculate BEP, providing the broad overview ab extinct BEP summary and its implication in different aspect, which will ultimately help us to take different management decisions.METHODOLOGYI have collected the information for this bourne paper about BEP epitome by library work from different books, journals, articles, internet browsing, papers of professionals degrees and different BEP practice of different c entirelyer with on moving in logging into their sites.ABSTRUCTBreakeven point abbreviation sometimes called cost volume- internet analysis, stresses the relationships between the factors affecting boodles. Traditional break-even analysis is a relatively uncouth managerial motherfucker employ in a wide variety of purposes for nearly all types of decision-making. Break-even analysis (sometimes called profit contri stillion analysis) is an important tool, which allows comparative studies between be, revenues, and profits (Pappas and Brigham, 1981).This analytical technique facilitates the evaluation of potential prices, the impact of price changes and glacial/ multivariate star cost on gainfulness (Powers, 1987). This analysis give notice as well be utilise to expedite decisions on investment return criteria, required market sh atomic number 18s, and distribution alternatives (Kotler, 1984). Break-even is the sales volume at which revenue and total cost are equal, resulting in no net income or loss. It is typ ical to graphically depict break-even as the point where a firms total cost and total revenue curves queer. This is the sales point where both varying and fixed be are covered by the sales volume for the relevant range. If the break-even point is not achieved, that rail line will (or should) eventually go out of championship. The breakeven point the profit is zero that is the contribution margin is equal to the fixed cost. If the actual volume of sales is higher(prenominal) than the break-even volume there will be profit.FINDINGS BREAK-EVEN abridgment DefinitionDetailsBreak-even analysisAn analysis to determine the point at which revenue received equals the cost associated with receiving the revenue. Break-even analysis calculates what is known as a margin of safety, the pith that revenues exceed the break-even point. This is the amount that revenues can fall while still staying above the break-even point. Investopedia explains Break-Even AnalysisBreak-even analysis is a sup ply-side analysis that is, it only analyzes the be of the sales. It does not analyze how demand whitethorn be affected atdifferent price takes.Moore & jaedickeThe break-even point of the company or a unit of measurement of a company is the level of sales income which will equal the gist of its fixed costs and its variable costs. These costs are also referred to as out of pocket costs and period costs.(Source ACCA, paper F, CVP analysis, page 47) ASSUMPTION OF BEP compendThe break-even analysis is based on the following(a) assumptions 1. bes segregation It is based on the assumption that all costs can be unintegrated into fixed costs and variable costs. 2. Constant change Price The selling price remains constant. That is, selling price does not change with volume or other factors. 3. Constant unconquerable costs Fixed costs are constant, at all levels of activity.They do not change, with change in sales. 4. Constant Variable costs Variable cost per unit is constant. So, var iable costs fluctuate, directly, in proportion to changes in volume of rig. In other words, they change in direct proportion to sales volume. 5. Synchronized return and sales It is assumed production and sales are synchronized. That is, inventories remain the same in the opening stock and closing stock. 6. Constant sales mix Only one product is manufactured. In case, more than one product is manufactured, sales mix of products sold does not change. 7. No Change in operating efficiency there is no change in operating efficiency. 8. No other factors The volume of output or production is the only factor that influences the cost. No other factors have any influence on break-even analysis.BREAK-EVEN compendium COMPONENTSTo fully appreciate the break-even theory and related graphical depictions, it is necessary to have a basic understanding related to cost, revenue and profit. In order to facilitate this, one must first know the following components of break- even add together cost co ntribution marginTotal revenueSemi variable costsFixed costs and variable costsRelative rangeMargin of safetyNet profit marketing Price per Unit The amount of money charged to the guest for each unit of a product or process Total cost is the sum of fixed cost and variable costs.Total revenue is that amount of gross income received from product sales or a service rendered, and is equal to the price of a unit times the number of units sold. Forecasted Net professional personfit Total revenue minus total cost. Enter Zero (0) if you wish to find out the number of units that must be sold in order to produce a profit of zero (but will recover all associated costs). Fixed costs These are costs that are the same regardless of how some items you sell. All start-up costs, such as rent, insurance and computers, are considered fixed costs since you have to make these outlays before you sell your first item. Examples of fixed costs Rent and rates Depreciation Research and development Marketin g costs (non- revenue related) Administration costsVariable costs These are recurring costs that you absorb with each unit you sell. For example, if you were operating a recognise card store where you had to buy greeting cards from a stationary company for $1 each, then that dollar represents a variable cost. As your occupancy and sales grow, you can begin appropriating drudge and other items as variable costs if it makes sense for your industry. Direct variable costs are those which can be directly attributable to the production of a particular product or service and allocated to a particular cost centre. Raw materials and the wages thoseworking on the production line are skilful examples. Indirect variable costs cannot be directly attributable to production but they do vary with output. These include disparagement (where it is calculated related to output e.g. machine hours), maintenance and certain labor costs.Semi variable costs often stay constant for a certain time period during production increases, then step up to a higher cost level at specific points of increased volume. An example of this is an insurance premium, which covers production to a certain level, which if exceeded, is changed to a new fixed level. To simplify the analysis process, semi variable costs are generally calculated and split into appropriate fixed and variable costs.Margin of Safety The margin of safety is the units sold or the revenue earned above the break-even volume. For example, if the break-even volume for a company is 200 units and the company is ill-consideredly selling 500 units, then the margin of safety is 300 units (500-200). The margin of safety can be evince in sales revenue as well. If the break-even volume is $200,000 and current revenues are $350,000, then the margin of safety is $150,000 ($350,000-$200,000). In addition, margin of safety sales revenue can be expressed as a percentage of total sales dollars, which some Managers refer to as the margin of sa fety ratio. function margin is that amount which contributes to the fixed costs of the company and to its profits, after deducting the variable costs. Total variable costs are subtracted from total revenue to yield the contribution margin. The contribution margin can be expressed in total dollars, in dollars per unit, or as a percentage.Relative range is the limit of production or output levels over which fixed costs remain constant. Above the relative range cost evaluations and respective relationships are no longer applicable. For instance, if a construction firms work dual or tripled, the company would have to hire more people, rent more office space, and acquire more equipment thus increasing fixed costs and fixation the entire break-even cost and revenue structure.PROCESS OF BEP ANALYSISThere are 3 locomote of BEP analysis these are started after each and every steps is finished. The sequence of the BEP analysis is 1. Conduct a cost/income analysis of the construction firm t o determine 1. Fixed costs2. Variable costs3. Total costs4. Total revenue2. Calculate contribution margin and perform break-even analysis (Moore & Jaedicke).Variations of break-even3. Preparing different graphs charts statements.Cost volume chartProfit volume chartMETHODS OF BEP ANALYSISBreak-even point can be determined by 4 ways with the break-even analysis. These methods are given bellow 1. Break-even schedule.2. Break-even charts3. Algebraic radiation diagram4. Income statement methods5. foldar program. A detail overview has been given about the different methods of the break-even analysis. Break-even schedule we can determine the break-even point with break-even schedule. The procedure of preparing break-even schedule is given follow (with imaginary figure) growthionWe can observe the schedule that, when the production and sales is 4000 units then there is no profit and loss. So in break-even point the sale is 4000units or 40000 taka. Break-even chartsThe break-even point c an be presented graphically. The pictorial creation gives a better view of the relationship of cost, volume and profit. Graphical presentation gives immediate and clear understanding of the picture. This type of presentation always impresses the management as it gives instantaneous understanding of the situation The graphical chart of break-even analysis looks like thisBreak-even chartFollowing are the steps composite in preparing break-even chart 1. sales volume is plotted on the horizontal line i.e. X-axis. gross sales volume whitethorn be expressed in harm of units, taka or as a percentage of capacity. 2. Vertical line i.e. Y-axis is used to represent revenue, fixed costs and variable costs. 3. Both horizontal and vertical lines are spaced, equally, with the same distance. 4. Break-even point is the point of intersection between total cost line and sales line. 5. Sales revenue at the break-even point can be determined by drawing a perpendicular line to X-axis from the point of above intersection.6. Total sales line and Total cost line intersect forming an angle known as Angle of Incidence.Break-even with profit volume chartProfit-volume graph visually portrays the relationship between profits operating income and units sold. Prot -volume (PV) graph provides a depiction of the amount of prot or loss associated with each sales level horizontal, or x, axis on the PV graph represents sales volume the vertical, or y, axis represents dollars of prot or loss. Amounts shown above the x-axis are positive and represent prot amounts shown to a lower place the x-axis are negative and represent losses. twain points can be located on the graph total xed cost and break-even point.Total xed cost is shown on the y-axis below the sales volume line as a negative amount. If no products were sold, the xed cost would still be incurred and a loss of that amount would result. Location of the BEP in units may be determined algebraically and is shown at the point where the p rot line intersects the x-axis at that point, there is no prot or loss. Amount of prot or loss for any sales volume can be read from the y-axis. Slope of the prot (diagonal) line is determined by the unit contribution margin and the points on the line represent the contribution margin earned at each volume level. Line shows that no prot is earned until total contribution margin covers total xed cost.The profit-volume chart is simply the conventional break-even chart re-arranged to show changes in profit or loss which occur through volume changes either of sales or output. It is less detailed since it does not show separate curves for costs and revenues, but its virtue lies in the fact that it reduces any changes down to both key elements-volume and profit. For this reason, the volume-profit chart is useful for illustrating the results of different management decisionsBEP Analysis with Algebraic Formula ace product BEP equationsBreakeven battery-acid =Fixed Costs / (Unit Selling Pr ice Variable Costs) Breakeven Sales Point =Fixed Costs / (1 (Variable Costs Unit Selling Price)) Breakeven Point=BEP (sales value in taka)/ sales in units Breakeven Point( in taka)=(Total fixed cost/CM per units)* Unit sales Break-even Sales (in taka) = Price per Unit Break-even Sales Units The formula to calculate the breakeven point in units is= Fixed expenses + operating income Unit contribution marginThe formula to calculate the breakeven point in dollars is= Fixed expenses + operate income Contribution margin ratio Or=Target Profit Point in Units=Multiple product BEP analysisBreakeven Point in Units=BEP Analysis with income statement methodBreakeven can be computed by development either the income statement approach or the contribution margin formula approach. With the income statement equation approach, breakeven sales in units is calculated as follows = (unit sale price x units sold) (variable unit cost x units sold) fixed expenses = operating income (solve for units sold to get breakeven unit sales). At the breakeven point, a sale minus variable expenses equals fixed expenses (there is no operating income at breakeven). So we can show the statement for BEP analysis with imaginary figures Income statement (for BEP)DescriptionsTakaSales (at $16 per Unit)Less Variable Costs (at $12 per Unit)Contribution MarginLess Fixed Costs3,840,0002,880,000960,000960,000Operating Profit0,000The observing figure indicating that contribution margin is 960,000 is equal to the fixed cost 960,000. So it has fulfilled the condition of break-evenpoint at 24,000 units of sales.Break-even point analysis with linear programming method (multiple products) With the use of linear programming, break-even analysis proves to be much more useful. In fact, linear programming stretches the CVP relationships inherent in BP analysis into a fairly realistic denary approach to the incremental cost and revenue concept of microeconomics. There is no doubt that more businessmen and acc ountants will begin to consider the possibility of using LP to express CVP relationships and to drive the optimum combination of costs, volumes, profits. One need not worry about the size of the equations or the numbers of equations since computers are readily easy to use the simplex method of solving linear equations. Furthermore, there is the possibility that the number of factors and equations could be loss in some situations. The process of BEP analysis in LP is following Objective function maximization or minimization. crossroadion constraints determination.Sales constraints identification.Non negativity constraints.The objective function represents the fact that we are seeking the combination of products which when work out by their respective profit contributions will maximize the total profit contribution and thus profits. The constraints represent the facts there are limits on the available combination of products. A sales constraint indicates the upper limits of possibl e sales and production constraints indicate upper limits of production possibilities. Linear programming method is applied to the theatre of operations of a real case in a small enterprise. The characteristics of this method are to make it necessary to use integer linear programming. Cash break-even point analysisMany a time, it is difficult for the industrial units to become break-even in the initial years. From that environment, the concept of cash-breakeven point has emerged. The Cash break-even point may be be as that point of sales volume, where cash revenues are equal to cash costs. In other words, if we eliminate non-cash items from revenues and costs, the break- even analysis on cash substructure can be computed. Depreciation is, generally, a fixed cost. However, when gear up and machinery is used for additional shifts, the additional depreciation is a variable cost. Reason for treating the additional depreciation as variable cost is the firm can avoid additional shift, at any time, and in such circumstances this cost would not be incurred. To calculate cash- breakeven point, depreciation is to be removed from fixed costs. Additional depreciation, component, treated as variable cost, is also to be excluded from variable costs. Similarly, deferred expenses are to be excluded from the fixed cost. Thus, cash-breakeven point may be calculated as belowCash Fixed Cost Cash break-even Point (in terms of units) =Cash Contribution per unitBREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS FOR PARTS OF THE FIRMOne can use break-even analysis for parts of the firm by recognizing the fact that many firms are multiproduct, multi set, and multi dominion operations. In recognizing these analyzableities of modem-day business activities, the problems of cost allocation are quickly brought to the fore. Substantial amounts of factory overhead, distribution costs, and administrative costs are not trackable to individual products, product lines, manufacturing coiffures, and even sales territories. These no traceable costs are normally fixed costs such as factory administrative costs and general administrative costs. In order to illustrate the consequences of nonallocation of common fixed costs, the following types of companies will be consideredOne productone plantTwo productsone plantOne producttwo plantsTwo productstwo plantsOne productone planttwo territoriesTwo productsone planttwo territoriesTwo productstwo plantstwo territories.One Product-One Plant confederacyIn a company such as this, all costs are traceable to the product and to theplant. Thus there is no problem of allocation. With the facts given le1ow, the contribution per unit and break-even point can be calculated as shown (with imaginary figure)Fixed costs $265,000 Variable costs $4.00 per unit Sales price $8 .50 per unit Contribution per unit = $8.50 4.00 = $4.50 Break-even point = = 58,888 units. Two Product-One Plant CompanyIn a two product-one plant situation, some costs will not be traceable to product s. These are the common fixed costs. The fixed costs which are traceable to each product can be described as direct fixed costs. With the data given, break-even calculations can be made as shown below.Break-even DataDescriptionsProduct AProduct BDirect fixed costs.Variable costs.Sales prices..Common fixed costsBreak-even pointProduct AProduct BContribution per unit..Break-even to cover direct fixed costs.Two Product-Two Plant CompanyIn a more complex situation with two products and two plants, there arise three layers of common fixed costs. These layers represent the costs common to products A and B in plant I and in plant 11 and the costs common to the entire operation of all products and all plants. Below are shown break-even data and break-even calculations to illustrate the two producttwo plant situation. Break-even DataDescriptionsPlant IPlant IIProduct AProduct BProduct AProduct BDirect fixed costsVariable costs per unit.Sales prices per unitFixed costs common to products. Fix ed costs common to total operationsBreak-even CalculationsDescriptionsPlant IPlant IIProduct AProduct BProduct AProduct BContribution per unit.Break-even to cover direct fixed cost..One product one PlantTwo Territory CompanyWhen sales territories are considered in a break-even situation, there aulses the possibility of fixed costs common to the sales territories as well as the possibility of dealing with variable costs segregated by sales and production. DescriptionsEasternterritoryWesternterritoryPlantDirect fixed costsVariable costs per unit s.Sales prices per unitCommon fixed costsCommon to both territoriesCommon to all operations..Break-even Calculations DescriptionsEastern territoryWestern territoryContribution per unit (sales price minus all variable costs). Break-even to cover direct fixed costs of eachTerritoryTwo Product-One PlantTwo Territory CompanyThe two product-one planttwo territory situations are very similar to the preceding illustration. Actually, the only differen ces are the extra layers of common fixed costs.DescriptionsEasternterritoryWesternterritoryPlantProduct AProduct BProduct AProduct BProduct AProduct BDirect fixed costsVariable costs per unit.Sales prices per unit.Common fixed costsCommon to Products.Common to territory..Common to all operationsAPPLICATIONS OF BEP ANALYSIS IN SERVICE INDUSTRIESWhile many of the examples used have assumed that the producer was a manufacturer (i.e., labor and materials), break-even analysis may be even more important for service industries. The reason for this lies in the basic difference in goods and services services cannot be placed in inventory for later sale. What is a variable cost in manufacturing may necessarily be a fixed cost in services. For example, in the eating house industry, unknown demand requires that cooks and table-service personnel be on duty, even when customers are few. In retail sales, clerical and cash register workers must be scheduled. If a barber shop is open, at least one barber must be present. Emergency rooms require round-the-clock staffing. The absence of sufficient service personnel frustrates the customer, who may balk at this visit to the service firm and may find competitors that fulfill the customers needs.The wages for this basic level of personnel must be counted as fixed costs, as they are necessary for the potential production of services, despite the actual demand. However, the wages for on-call workers might be better classified as variable costs, as these wages will vary with units of production. wait ons, therefore, may be burdened with an extremely large ratio of fixed-to-variable costs. Service industries, without the luxury of inventor able products, have developed a number of ways to provide flexibility in fixed costs. Professionals require appointments, and restaurants take reservations when the customer flow pattern can be predetermined, excess personnel can be scheduled only when needed, reducing fixed costs. Airlines may sh ift low-demand escape legs to smaller aircraft, using less fuel and fewer attendants. Hotel and telecommunication managers advertise lower rates on weekends to smooth demand through slow business periods and avoid times when the high-fixed-cost equipment is underutilized. Retailers and banks track customer flow patterns by day and by hour to enhance their short-term scheduling efficiencies.Whatever method is used, the goal of these service industries is the same as that in manufacturing reduce fixed costs to lower the break-even point. Break-even analysis is a simple tool that defines the minimum quantity of sales that will cover both variable and fixed costs. Such analysis gives managers a quantity to compare to the forecast of demand. If the break-even point lies above anticipated demand, implying a loss on the product, the manager can use this information to make a variety of decisions. The product may be discontinued or, by contrast, may receive additional advertising and/or be re-priced to enhance demand. One of the most effective uses of break-even analysis lies in the recognition of the relevant fixed and variable costs. The more flexible the equipment and personnel, the lower the fixed costs, and the lower the break-even point. (Source www.assignmentpoint.com)CVP ANALYSIS VS BEP ANALYSISCVP analysis is the boarder sense but BEP is the part of the whole system of CVP analysis. CVP analysis is differ from BEP analysis since former takes into account the amount of profit earned by a concern at present level of output and sales. that there is also those who feel that BEP analysis is just another name of CVP analysis. There are others who feel that BEP analysis is appropriate up to the point at which costs become equal to revenue and beyond this point, it is the study of CVP relationship. CVP is not static but BEP is fundamentally a static analysis the graph and charts are used can be changed with management decisions. The purpose of CVP analysis is to ex amine the effect of change in costs, volume, and price on profits. This is a comprehensive study. Break-even analysis is a part of CVP analysis.CHANGES IN BEPThere are 5 common reasons of changing in BEP analysis. These are given bellow 1. If there is any change in variable cost P/V ratio and BEP also changed. 2. If there is change in sales price of the product then the BEP also changes. 3. If sales mixed is changed than the P/V ratio & BEP changes. 4. If fixed costs changes the P/V ratio is not change but BEP ratio changes. 5. If the variable costs and fixed costs change at a time and in the same direction than the BEP also changes quickly.(Source Marginal costing- CVP analysis by Prof. Mukbul Hossen)USES OF BEP ANALYSISBreak even analysis enables a business organization to Measure profit and loss at different levels of production and sales. T o predict the effect of changes in price of sales. To analysis the relationship between fixed cost and variable cost. To predict the effect on profitability if changes in cost and efficiency. The break even analysis has different application in the business. In planning stage, the analysis is used in sales projection to determine how many units will have to be sold for the company to cover the cost associated with the production. Sales above breakeven point will results into profits. The analysis can be used by financiers to access the viability of business by accessing the units required to be sold before turning the venture into profitable business. Breakeven point can also be used by investors to determine the selling price of an investment at price which will not result into loss due to the sale of investments.LIMITATIONS OF BREAK-EVEN ANALYSISDespite many advantages, break-even analysis and charts suffer from the following limitations 1. Number of Assumptions Break-even analysis is based on several assumptions and they may not hold well, under all circumstances. Fixed costs are presumed to be constant, irrespective of the level of output. It does not happen. When the production increases, above the installed capacity, fixed costs change as new plant and machinery has to be installed for increased production. Variable costs do not vary in direct proportion to the change in volume of output, due to the laws of lessen returns. Selling price that is supposed to be constant also changes due to increased competition. 2. Application in Short Run Break-even analysis is a short run analysis. In long run, the cost analysis may not hold good as the assumptions may vary and situation may be, totally, different.3. relevant in Single Product line This analysis is applicable for a single product only. If break-even point for each product is to be calculated, fixed costs have to be allocated to different products, which is a practical problem in the real life. Otherwise, BEP for the overall firm only is possible to calculate. 4. No Remedial act It does not suggest any remedy or action to the management fo r solving the problem. 5. Other Factors Ignored Other important factors such as amount of investment, problems of marketing and policies of Government influence the problem. Break-even analysis does not consider them. This analysis focuses only on cost volume profit relationship. 6. Limited Information Break-even charts provide limited information. If we want to study the effects of changes in fixed costs, variable costs and selling prices on profitability, a number of charts have to be drawn. It becomes rather more complicated and difficult to understand. 7. Static View More often, a break-even chart presents a static view of the problem under consideration.CONCLUSION This term paper is introduced on basics of economic break-even analysis. There are two primary beneficial uses for break-even analysis. These include techniques in company evaluation of desired profit levels and cost reduction impact analysis.Also, the decision making process can be enhanced by using break-even analy sis in combination with other analytical tools such as Break-even Default Ratios, graphical, linear programming, income statement method (a sensitivity analysis on the limit of decreasing unit prices) and Degree of Operating Leverage (analysis on how a change in volume affects profits) for both single and multiple products. Inclusion of these tools to the BEP analysis in companies for business position and profitability analysis assist in enhancing the critical thinking process. It also provides these future managers of manufacturing and service with another tool to produce safe and sound managerial decisions, a typical requirement of graduate level students entering the workforce needed in the critical analysis of the connection between theoretical knowledge and with practice. though the BEP analysis has the different limitation but it is widely using in managerial decision making.REFRANCES i. Marginal costing cost volume and profit analysis Cost and Management Accounting, by Prof. Mukbul Hossen. ii. Cost volume and profit relationships Management Accounting by Moore & Jaedicke. iii. Break-even analysis Management Accounting by L. Wayne. Keller. iv. Cost report principles& practice by S.P. Iyanger.v. Management Accounting by Garrison. Noreen, Brewer.vi. Practical Business Application of Break Even Analysis in Graduate Construction reproduction by Charles W. Berryman, PhD. Journal of Construction Education Spring 1999, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 26-37. vii. Experience managerial decision by Boyne Resorts.viii. Break-even analysis by Jon Wittwer.ix. Break-Even Analysis and divination by Professor Hussein Arsham. x. Break-Even Point and Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis chapter 9, page 381 xi. Accounting for manager, costing for decision making , chapter 18, page 429 xii. How to Do a Breakeven Analysis Breakeven analysis helps determine when your business revenues equal your costs by Daniel Richards xiii. Importance of Break Even Analysis by Kaveh M, Thursday, January 05, 2012 xiv. Break-even analysis Business plan template. www.Google.com xv. ACCA, Paper F. Cost and profit volume analysis. Page 47. xvi. Student accountant issues 14/2010. ACCA .paper F5.

Selinux

patterns First steps with hostage-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) set the Apache vane Server Blueprints First steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) Hardening the Apache Web Server line of work Before victimization this cultivation and the product it persists, read the entropy in Notices on page 17. First Edition (August two hundred9) Copyright IBM Corporation 2009. US establishment Users Restricted Rights Use, duplication or disclosure restricted by GSA ADP Schedule Contract with IBM Corp. Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . v First go with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) Hardening the Apache Web Server . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 sphere, requirements, and support Security-Enhanced Linux overview Access support MAC and DAC SELinux staple fibers. . . . . . SELinux and Apache . . . . Installing and course HTTPD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1 2 5 5 HTTPD and linguistic place setting fibers . . . . . . . . . 5 HTTPD and SELinux Booleans . . . . . . . 8 Configuring HTTPD certification using SELinux . . . . 9 Securing Apache (static content only) . . . . . 9 Hardening CGI scripts with SELinux . . . . . 12 Appendix. related information and downloads . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Notices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Trademarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Copyright IBM Corp. 2009 iii iv Blueprints First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) Hardening the Apache Web Server Introduction This radiation diagram leaves a brief introduction to basic Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) commands and concepts, including Boolean volt-ampereiables. In addition, the paper shows you how to increase the security of the Apache Web help oneselfr with SELinux by using these concepts. Key tools and techno lumberies discussed in this demonstration include security-enhanced Linux (SELinux), mandatory admission pick up (MAC), getenforce, sestatus, getsebool, and setsebool. Intended audi enceThis rule is intended for Linux ashes or network administrators who want to see more than virtually securing their systems with SELinux. You should be familiar with installing and configuring Linux distributions, networks, and the Apache Web server. Scope and purpose This paper provides a basic overview of SELinux, SELinux Boolean volt-ampereiables, and hardening Apache on Red Hat effort Linux (RHEL) 5. 3. For more information about configuring RHEL 5. 3, see the backing supplied with your trigger media or the distribution Web site. For more information about SELinux, see link up information and downloads, on page 15.Softw atomic number 18 requirements This radiation pattern is written and tried using Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) 5. 3. Hardw atomic number 18 requirements The information contained in this blueprint is tested on different expressive stylels of IBM governance x and formation p hardware. For a list of hardware supported by RHEL 5. 3, see the entry ation supplied with your Linux distribution. Author name Robert Sisk Other contributors Monza Lui Kersten Richter Robb Romans IBM Services Linux gloweringers flexibility, options, and competitive total cost of willpower with a world class enterprise operating system.Community innovation integrates leading-edge techno logies and best practices into Linux. IBM is a leader in the Linux community with over 600 developers in the IBM Linux Technology circle around working on over 100 open source projects in the community. IBM supports Linux on all IBM servers, storage, and middleware, move outering the broadest flexibility to match your business submits. Copyright IBM Corp. 2009 v For more information about IBM and Linux, go to ibm. com/linux (https// web. ibm. com/linux) IBM Support Questions and comments regarding this documentation outho purpose be posted on the developerWorks Security Blueprint Community Forum http//www. bm. com/developerworks/forums/forum. jspa? forumID=1271 The IBM developerWorks preaching forums let you ask questions, share knowledge, ideas, and opinions about technologies and programming techniques with otherwise developerWorks substance ab using uprs. Use the forum content at your own risk. While IBM will attempt to provide a timely response to all postings, the use of this developerWorks forum does non guarantee a response to every question that is posted, nor do we validate the answers or the code that are saturnineered. Typographic conventionsThe avocation typographic conventions are used in this Blueprint Bold Identifies commands, subroutines, keywords, saddles, structures, directories, and other items whose names are predefined by the system. withal identifies graphical aims such as buttons, stigmatizes, and icons that the substance abuser selects. Identifies parameters whose actual names or values are to be supplied by the user. Identifies examples of specific data values, examples of text kindred what you might se e displayed, examples of portions of program code like what you might write as a programmer, nitty-grittys from the system, or information you should actually oddball.Italics Monospace Related reference Scope, requirements, and support on page 1 This blueprint applies to System x zip Linux and PowerLinux. You can check up on more about the systems to which this information applies. vi Blueprints First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) Hardening the Apache Web Server First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) Hardening the Apache Web Server Scope, requirements, and support This blueprint applies to System x running Linux and PowerLinux. You can instruct more about the systems to which this information applies.Systems to which this information applies System x running Linux and PowerLinux Security-Enhanced Linux overview Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) is a comp starnt of the Linux operating system developed primarily by the joined States National Security Ag ency. SELinux provides a method for creation and enforcement of mandatory chafe control (MAC) policies. These policies confine users and processes to the minimal amount of privilege required to perform appoint tasks. For more information about the history of SELinux, see http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Selinux.Since its release to the open source community in December 2000, the SELinux project has gained improvements such as predefined Boolean volt-ampereiables that make it easier to use. This paper helps you understand how to use these volt-ampereiables to configure SELinux policies on your system and to secure the Apache httpd daemon. Related reference Scope, requirements, and support This blueprint applies to System x running Linux and PowerLinux. You can understand more about the systems to which this information applies. Access control MAC and DAC Access level is important to computer system security.To compromise a system, attackers resolve to gain some(prenominal) possi ble level of advance and then try to escalate that level until they are able to obtain restricted data or make unapproved system modifications. Because each user has some level of system opening, every user account on your system increases the potential for abuse. System security has historically relied on trusting users not to abuse their rise to power, but this trust has proven to be problematic. Today, server consolidation leads to more users per system. Outsourcing of Systems Management gives ordered access, often at the system administrator level, to unknown users.Because server consolidation and outsourcing can be financially advantageous, what can you do to prevent abuse on Linux systems? To begin to answer that question, lets take a look at discretionary access control (DAC) and mandatory access control (MAC) and their differences. Discretionary access control (DAC), commonly known as lodge permissions, is the predominant access control mechanism in traditional UNIX an d Linux systems. You may recognize the drwxr-xr-x or the ugo abbreviations for owner, group, and other permissions seen in a directory listing. In DAC, generally the resource owner (a user) controls who has access to a resource.For convenience, some users commonly set dangerous DAC blame permissions that allow every user on the system to read, write, and execute many files that they own. In addition, a process derailed by a user can modify or delete any file to which the user has access. Processes that elevate their privileges high enough could therefore modify or delete system files. These instances are some of the disadvantages of DAC. Copyright IBM Corp. 2009 1 In contrast to DAC, mandatory access control (MAC) regulates user and process access to resources based upon an organizational (higher-level) security form _or_ system of government.This indemnity is a collection of rules that specify what graphic symbols of access are allowed on a system. System insurance is related to MAC in the same room that firewall rules are related to firewalls. SELinux is a Linux kernel carrying out of a flexible MAC mechanism called font enforcement. In emblem enforcement, a theatrical role identifier is assigned to every user and object. An object can be a file or a process. To access an object, a user must be authorized for that object type. These authorizations are defined in a SELinux policy. Lets work through some examples and you will develop a better understanding of MAC and how it relates to SELinux.Related reference Scope, requirements, and support on page 1 This blueprint applies to System x running Linux and PowerLinux. You can learn more about the systems to which this information applies. SELinux basics It is a good practice not to use the alkali user unless obligatory. However for demonstrating how to use SELinux, the bloodline user is used in the examples in this blueprint. Some of the commands shown require patch up privileges to run them for e xample, running getenforce and editing the /etc/selinux/config file. Related reference Scope, requirements, and support on page 1 This blueprint applies to System x running Linux and PowerLinux.You can learn more about the systems to which this information applies. footrace modes You can enable or disable SELinux policy enforcement on a Red Hat Enterprise Linux system during or after operating system installation. When disabled, SELinux has no effect on the system. When enabled, SELinux runs in one and only(a) of two modes v Enforcing SELinux is enabled and SELinux policy is enforced v Permissive SELinux is enabled but it only logs warnings instead of enforcing the policy When prompted during operating system installation, if you choose to enable SELinux, it is installed with a disregard security policy and set to run in the enforcing mode. confirm the status of SELinux on your system. Like in many UNIX or Linux operating systems, there is more than one way to perform a task. To check the on-line(prenominal) mode, run one of the pursual commands getenforce, sestatus, or cat /etc/selinux/config. v The getenorce command returns the current SELinux run mode, or modify if SELinux is not enabled. In the detecting example, getenforce shows that SELinux is enabled and enforcing the current SELinux policy emailprotected $ getenforce EnforcingIf your system is displaying Permissive or Disabled and you want to follow along with the instructions, variety show the /etc/selinux/config file to run in Enforcing mode in the lead continuing with the demonstration. Remember that if you are in Disabled mode, you should change first to Permissive and then to Enforcing. v The setstatus command returns the current run mode, along with information about the SELinux policy if SELinux is enabled. In the sideline example, setstatus shows that SELinux is enabled and enforcing the current SELinux policy emailprotected $ sestatus SELinux status SELinuxfs mount enabled /selinux B lueprints First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) Hardening the Apache Web Server Current mode Mode from config file insurance policy version Policy from config file enforcing enforcing 21 targeted v The /etc/selinux/config file configures SELinux and controls the mode as well as the active policy. Changes to the /etc/selinux/config file become effective only after you conjure the system. In the following example, the file shows that the mode is set to enforcing and the current policy type is targeted. emailprotected $ cat /etc/selinux/config This file controls the state of SELinux on the system. SELINUX= can take one of these three values enforcing SELinux security policy is enforced. permissive SELinux prints warnings instead of enforcing. disabled SELinux is fully disabled. SELINUX=enforcing SELINUXTYPE= type of policy in use. Possible values are targeted precisely targeted network daemons are protected. strict Full SELinux protection. SELINUXTYPE=target ed To enable SELinux, you need to set the value of the SELINUX parameter in the /etc/selinux/config file to either enforcing or permissive. If you enable SELinux in the config file, you must reboot your system to start SELinux.We recommend that you set SELINUX=permissive if the file system has never been labeled, has not been labeled recently, or you are not sure when it was last labeled. Note that file system labeling is the process of assigning a label containing security-relevant information to each file. In SELinux a file label is composed of the user, role, and type such as system_uobject_rhttpd_sys_content_t. Permissive mode ensures that SELinux does not interfere with the boot sequence if a command in the sequence occurs before the file system relabel is completed. Once the system is up and running, you can change the SELinux mode to enforcing.If you want to change the mode of SELinux on a running system, use the setenforce command. Entering setenforce enforcing changes the m ode to enforcing and setenforce permissive changes the mode to permissive. To disable SELinux, edit the /etc/selinux/config file as described earlierly and reboot. You cannot disable or enable SELinux on a running system from the command line you can only make between enforcing and permissive when SELinux is enabled. Change the mode of SELinux to permissive by entering the following command emailprotected $ setenforce permissiveRecheck the output from getenforce, sestatus, and cat /etc/selinux/config. v The getenforce command returns Permissive, confirming the mode change emailprotected $ getenforce Permissive v The sestatus command in like manner returns a Permissive mode value emailprotected $sestatus SELinux status SELinuxfs mount Current mode Mode from config file Policy version Policy from config file enabled /selinux permissive enforcing 21 targeted v afterward changing the mode to permissive, both the getenforce and sestatus commands return the correct permissive mode.How ever, look carefully at the output from the sestatus command emailprotected $ cat /etc/selinux/config This file controls the state of SELinux on the system. SELINUX= can take one of these three values enforcing SELinux security policy is enforced. permissive SELinux prints warnings instead of enforcing. First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) 3 disabled SELinux is fully disabled. SELINUX=enforcing SELINUXTYPE= type of policy in use. Possible values are targeted Only targeted network daemons are protected. strict Full SELinux protection.SELINUXTYPE=targeted emailprotected $ The Mode from config file parameter is enforcing. This setting is conformable with the cat /etc/selinux/config output because the config file was not changed. This status implies that the changes made by the setenforce command does not carry over to the next boot. If you reboot, SELinux returns to run state as configured in /etc/selinux/conf in enforcing mode. Change the running mode back to enforcing by entering the following command emailprotected $ setenforce enforcing The following output confirms the mode change emailprotected $ getenforce EnforcingRelated reference Scope, requirements, and support on page 1 This blueprint applies to System x running Linux and PowerLinux. You can learn more about the systems to which this information applies. Security contexts The concept of type enforcement and the SELinux type identifier were discussed in the Overview. Lets explore these concepts in more detail. The SELinux implementation of MAC employs a type enforcement mechanism that requires every pass on and object to be assigned a type identifier. The terms subject and object are defined in the Bell-La Padula multilevel security model (see http//en. wikipedia. rg/wiki/Bell-La_Padula_model for more information). deliberate of the subject as a user or a process and the object as a file or a process. Typically, a subject accesses an object for example, a user modifies a f ile. When SELinux runs in enforcing mode, a subject cannot access an object unless the type identifier assigned to the subject is authorized to access the object. The disrespect policy is to deny all access not specifically allowed. Authorization is determined by rules defined in the SELinux policy. An example of a rule granting access may be as simple as allow httpd_t httpd_sys_content_t file ioctol read getattr functionIn this rule, the subject http daemon, assigned the type identifier of httpd_t, is given the permissions ioctol, read, getattr, and lock for any file object assigned the type identifier httpd_sys_content_t. In simple terms, the http daemon is allowed to read a file that is assigned the type identifier httpd_sys_content_t. This is a basic example of an allow rule type. There are many types of allow rules and some are very complex. There are also many type identifiers for use with subjects and objects. For more information about rule definitions, see SELinux by Exa mple in the Related information and downloads, on page 15 section.SELinux adds type enforcement to standard Linux distributions. To access an object, the user must have both the appropriate file permissions (DAC) and the correct SELinux access. An SELinux security context contains three parts the user, the role, and the type identifier. hurry the ls command with the Z switch displays the typical file information as well as the security context for each item in the subdirectory. In the following example, the security context for the index. hypertext mark-up language file is composed of user_u as the user, object_r as the role, and httpd_sys_content_t as the type identifier emailprotected hypertext mark-up language$ ls -Z index. tml -rw-rr web_admin web_admin user_uobject_rhttpd_sys_content_t index. hypertext mark-up language 4 Blueprints First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) Hardening the Apache Web Server Related reference Scope, requirements, and support on page 1 This blueprint applies to System x running Linux and PowerLinux. You can learn more about the systems to which this information applies. SELinux and Apache Related reference Scope, requirements, and support on page 1 This blueprint applies to System x running Linux and PowerLinux. You can learn more about the systems to which this information applies.Installing and running HTTPD Now that you have a general understanding of the SELinux security context, you can secure an Apache Web server using SELinux. To follow along, you must have Apache installed on your system. You can install Apache on Red Hat Linux by entering the following command emailprotected hypertext markup language$ yum install httpd Next, start the Apache http daemon by entering service httpd start, as follows emailprotected html$ service httpd start Starting httpd Related reference Scope, requirements, and support on page 1 This blueprint applies to System x running Linux and PowerLinux.You can learn more about the sy stems to which this information applies. HTTPD and context types Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5. 3, at the time of this writing, uses selinux-policy-2. 4. 6-203. el5. This policy defines the security context for the http daemon object as httpd_t. Because SELinux is running in enforcing mode, entering / stash away/ps axZ grep httpd produces the following output emailprotected html$ ps axZ grep http line of descent go undersystem_rhttpd_t 2555 ? Ss 000 /usr/sbin/httpd steady down descentsystem_rhttpd_t 2593 ? S 000 /usr/sbin/httpd lineagerootsystem_rhttpd_t 2594 ? S 000 /usr/sbin/httpd rootsystem_rhttpd_t 2595 ?S 000 /usr/sbin/httpd rootsystem_rhttpd_t 2596 ? S 000 /usr/sbin/httpd rootsystem_rhttpd_t 2597 ? S 000 /usr/sbin/httpd rootsystem_rhttpd_t 2598 ? S 000 /usr/sbin/httpd rootsystem_rhttpd_t 2599 ? S 000 /usr/sbin/httpd rootsystem_rhttpd_t 2600 ? S 000 /usr/sbin/httpd The Z option to ps shows the security context for the httpd processes as rootsystem_rhttpd_t, confirming that ht tpd is running as the security type httpd_t. The selinux-policy-2. 4. 6-203. el5 also defines several file security context types to be used with the http daemon. For a listing, see the man page for httpd_selinux.The httpd_sys_content_t context type is used for files and subdirectories containing content to be accessible by the http daemon and all httpd scripts. Entering ls Z displays the security context for items in the default http directory (/var/www/), as follows emailprotected $ ls -Z /var/www/ grep html drwxr-xr-x root root system_uobject_rhttpd_sys_content_t html First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) 5 The /var/www/html directory is the default military position for all Web server content (defined by the variable setting of DocumentRoot /var/www/html in the /etc/httpd/conf/httpd. conf http configuration file).This directory is assigned the type httpd_sys_content_t as part of its security context which allows the http daemon to access its contents. Any file or subdirectory inherits the security context of the directory in which it is created therefore a file created in the html subdirectory inherits the httpd_sys_content_t type. In the following example, the root user creates the index. html file in the /root directory. The index. html inherits the security rootobject_ruser_home_t context which is the expect security context for root in RHEL 5. 3. emailprotected $ touch /root/index. html emailprotected $ ls -Z /root/index. tml -rw-rr root root rootobject_ruser_home_t /root/index. html If the root user copies the modernisticly created index. html file to the /var/www/html/ directory, the file inherits the security context (httpd_sys_content_t) of the html subdirectory because a unused copy of the file is created in the html subdirectory emailprotected $ cp /root/index. html /var/www/html emailprotected $ ls -Z /var/www/html/index. html -rw-rr root root user_uobject_rhttpd_sys_content_t /var/www/html/index. html If you move the index. htm l file instead of copying it, a new file is not created in the html subdirectory and index. tml retains the user_home_t type emailprotected $ mv -f /root/index. html /var/www/html emailprotected $ ls -Z /var/www/html/index. html -rw-rr root root user_uobject_ruser_home_t /var/www/html/index. html When a Web browser or network download agent like wget makes a pass along to the http daemon for the moved index. html file, with user_home_t context, the browser is denied access because SELinux is running in enforcing mode. emailprotected wget localhost/index. html 211000 http//localhost/index. html Resolving localhost 127. 0. 0. 1 Connecting to localhost127. 0. 0. 180 onnected. HTTP request sent, awaiting response 403 proscribe 211000 ERROR 403 Forbidden. SELinux generates defect messages in both /var/log/messages and /var/log/httpd/error_log. The following message in /var/log/httpd/error_log is not very helpful because it tells you only that access is being denied Wed May 20 124757 2009 error client 172. 16. 1. 100 (13) Permission denied access to /index. html denied The following error message in /var/log/messages is more helpful because it tells you why SELinux is preventing access to the /var/www/html/index. html file a potentially mislabeled file.Furthermore, it provides a command that you can use to produce a detailed summary of the issue. May 20 122248 localhost setroubleshoot SELinux is preventing the httpd from using potentially mislabeled files (/var/www/html/index. html). For complete SELinux messages. run sealert -l 9e568d42-4b20-471c-9214-b98020c4d97a Entering sealert l 9e568d42-4b20-471c-9214-b98020c4d97 as suggested in the previous error message returns the following detailed error message emailprotected $ sealert l 9e568d42-4b20-471c-9214-b98020c4d97 compend SELinux is preventing the httpd from using potentially mislabeled files (/var/www/html/index. html).Detailed Description SELinux has denied httpd access to potentially mislabeled file(s) ( /var/www/html/index. html). This means that SELinux will not allow httpd to use these files. It is common for users to edit files in their home directory or tmp directories and then 6 Blueprints First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) Hardening the Apache Web Server move (mv) them to system directories. The problem is that the files end up with the wrong file context which enwrapped applications are not allowed to access. Allowing Access If you want httpd to access this files, you need to relabel them using restorecon -v /var/www/html/index. tml. You might want to relabel the entire directory using restorecon -R -v /var/www/html. Additional Information Source Context rootsystem_rhttpd_t Target Context rootobject_ruser_home_t Target Objects /var/www/html/index. html file Source httpd Source way /usr/sbin/httpd Port troops localhost. localdomain Source RPM Packages httpd-2. 2. 3-22. el5 Target RPM Packages Policy RPM selinux-policy-2. 4. 6-203. el5 Selinux Enabled True Policy sheath targeted MLS Enabled True Enforcing Mode Enforcing Plugin Name home_tmp_bad_labels Host Name localhost. localdomain Platform Linux localhost. ocaldomain 2. 6. 18-128. 1. 10. el5 1 SMP Wed Apr 29 135517 EDT 2009 i686 i686 Alert Count 24 First Seen Fri May 15 133632 2009 Last Seen Wed May 20 124756 2009 Local ID 9e568d42-4b20-471c-9214-b98020c4d97a airwave Numbers Raw Audit Messages host=localhost. localdomain type=AVC msg=audit(1242838076. 9371141) avc denied getattr for pid=3197 comm=httpd path=/var/www/html/index. html dev=dm-0 ino=3827354 scontext=rootsystem_rhttpd_ts0 context=rootobject_ruser_home_ts0 tclass=file host=localhost. localdomain type=SYSCALL msg=audit(1242838076. 371141) arch=40000003 syscall=196 success=no overhaul=-13 a0=8eaa788 a1=bfc8d49c a2=419ff4 a3=2008171 items=0 ppid=3273 pid=3197 auid=500 uid=48 gid=48 euid=48 suid=48 fsuid=48 egid=48 sgid=48 fsgid=48 tty=(none) ses=4 comm=httpd exe=/usr/sbin/httpd subj=rootsystem_rhttpd_ts0 key=(null) Al though called a summary, this output is a very detailed report that provides the necessary commands to resolve the issue. As shown below, entering /sbin/restorecon -v /var/www/html/index. html as suggested not only resolves the problem, but also explains how you should change the security context for the /var/www/html/index. tml file. emailprotected $ restorecon -v /var/www/html/index. html /sbin/restorecon reset /var/www/html/index. html context rootobject_ruser_home_ts0- rootobject_rhttpd_sys_content_ts0 The previous restorecon -v command changed the security context of /var/www/html/index. html from rootobject_ruser_home_t to rootobject_rhttpd_sys_content_t. With a rootobject_rhttpd_sys_content_t security context, the http daemon can now access /var/www/html/index. html. Use a Web browser or wget to make another request to the httpd daemon for the index. html file with a restored security context.This time, the request is permitted emailprotected wget localhost/index. html 21092 1 http//localhost/index. html Resolving localhost 127. 0. 0. 1 Connecting to localhost127. 0. 0. 180 connected. HTTP request sent, awaiting response 200 OK Length 0 text/html Saving to index. html First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) 7 0 . -K/s in 0s 210921 (0. 00 B/s) index. html saved 0/0 Related reference Scope, requirements, and support on page 1 This blueprint applies to System x running Linux and PowerLinux. You can learn more about the systems to which this information applies.HTTPD and SELinux Booleans SELinux has a set of built-in switches named Booleans or conditional policies that you can use to turn specific SELinux features on or turned. Entering the getsebool -a grep http command lists the 23 Booleans related to the http daemon, which are a subset of the 234 Booleans currently defined in the selinux-policy-2. 4. 6-203. el5 policy. These 23 Booleans allow you to customize SELinux policy for the http daemon during runtime without modifying, compiling, o r loading a new policy. You can customize the level of http security by setting the relevant Boolean values or toggling between on and off values. emailprotected $ getsebool -a grep http allow_httpd_anon_write off allow_httpd_bugzilla_script_anon_write off allow_httpd_mod_auth_pam off allow_httpd_nagios_script_anon_write off allow_httpd_prewikka_script_anon_write off allow_httpd_squid_script_anon_write off allow_httpd_sys_script_anon_write off httpd_builtin_scripting on httpd_can_network_connect off httpd_can_network_connect_db off httpd_can_network_relay off httpd_can_sendmail on httpd_disable_trans off httpd_enable_cgi on httpd_enable_ftp_server off httpd_enable_homedirs on httpd_rotatelogs_disable_trans off httpd_ssi_exec off httpd_suexec_disable_trans off httpd_tty_comm on httpd_unified on httpd_use_cifs off httpd_use_nfs off SELinux provides three command-line tools for working with Booleans getsebool, setsebool, and togglesebool. The getsebool a command returns the current state of all the SELinux Booleans defined by the policy.You can also use the command without the a option to return settings for one or more specific Booleans entered on the command line, as follows emailprotected $ getsebool httpd_enable_cgi httpd_enable_cgi on Use setsebool to set the current state of one or more Booleans by specifying the Boolean and its value. Acceptable values to enable a Boolean are 1, true, and on. Acceptable values to disable a Boolean are 0, false, and off. See the following cases for examples. You can use the -P option with the setsebool command to write the specified changes to the SELinux policy file. These changes are persistent across reboots unwritten changes remain in effect until you change them or the system is rebooted. Use setsebool to change status of the httpd_enable_cgi Boolean to off emailprotected $ setsebool httpd_enable_cgi 0 8Blueprints First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) Hardening the Apache Web Serve r Confirm status change of the httpd_enable_cgi Boolean emailprotected $ getsebool httpd_enable_cgi httpd_enable_cgi off The togglesebool tool flips the current value of one or more Booleans. This tool does not have an option that writes the changes to the policy file. Changes remain in effect until changed or the system is rebooted. Use the togglesebool tool to switch the status of the httpd_enable_cgi Boolean, as follows emailprotected $ togglesebool httpd_enable_cgi httpd_enable_cgi active Confirm the status change of the httpd_enable_cgi Boolean emailprotected $ getsebool httpd_enable_cgi httpd_enable_cgi onRelated reference Scope, requirements, and support on page 1 This blueprint applies to System x running Linux and PowerLinux. You can learn more about the systems to which this information applies. Configuring HTTPD security using SELinux Related reference Scope, requirements, and support on page 1 This blueprint applies to System x running Linux and PowerLinux. You can lea rn more about the systems to which this information applies. Securing Apache (static content only) The default Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5. 3 installation with SELinux running in enforcing mode provides a basic level of Web server security. You can increase that security level with a little effort.Because security is related to the function of the system, lets start with a Web server that only serves static content from the /var/www/html directory. 1. Ensure that SELinux is enabled and running in enforcing mode emailprotected $ sestatus SELinux status SELinuxfs mount Current mode Mode from config file Policy version Policy from config file enabled /selinux enforcing enforcing 21 2. Confirm that httpd is running as type httpd_t emailprotected html$ /bin/ps axZ rootsystem_rhttpd_t 2555 ? rootsystem_rhttpd_t 2593 ? rootsystem_rhttpd_t 2594 ? rootsystem_rhttpd_t 2595 ? rootsystem_rhttpd_t 2596 ? rootsystem_rhttpd_t 2597 ? rootsystem_rhttpd_t 2598 ? rootsystem_rhttpd_t 2599 ? rootsystem_r httpd_t 2600 ? grep http Ss 000 httpd S 000 httpd S 000 httpd S 000 httpd S 000 httpd S 000 httpd S 000 httpd S 000 httpd S 000 httpd 3. Confirm that the /var/www/html directory is assigned the httpd_sys_content_t context type emailprotected $ ls -Z /var/www/ drwxr-xr-x root root rootobject_rhttpd_sys_script_exec_t cgi-bin drwxr-xr-x root root rootobject_rhttpd_sys_content_t error drwxr-xr-x root root rootobject_rhttpd_sys_content_t html First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) 9 drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr-x root root rootobject_rhttpd_sys_content_t icons root root rootobject_rhttpd_sys_content_t manual webalizer root rootobject_rhttpd_sys_content_t usage 4.Confirm that the content to be served is assigned the httpd_sys_content_t context type. For example emailprotected $ ls -Z /var/www/html/index. html -rw-rr root root rootobject_rhttpd_sys_content_t /var/www/html/index. html Use a Web browser or wget to make a request to the httpd daemon for the index. html file and you should see that permission is granted. To increase the level of protection provided by SELinux, disable any httpd-related features that you do not want by turning off their alike(p) Boolean. By default, the following six Boolean are set to on. If you do not need these features, turn them off by setting their Boolean variables to off. emailprotected getsebool -agrep httpgrep on httpd_builtin_scripting on httpd_can_sendmail on httpd_enable_cgi on httpd_enable_homedirs on httpd_tty_comm on httpd_unified on httpd_can_sendmail If the Web server does not use Sendmail, turn this Boolean to off. This action prevents unauthorized users from send e-mail spam from this system. httpd_enable_homedirs When this Boolean is set to on, it allows httpd to read content from subdirectories located under user home directories. If the Web server is not configured to serve content from user home directories, set this Boolean to off. httpd_tty_comm By default, httpd is allowed to access the co ntrolling terminal.This action is necessary in certain situations where httpd must prompt the user for a password. If the Web server does not require this feature, set the Boolean to off. httpd_unified This Boolean affects the transition of the http daemon to security domains defined in SELinux policy. Enabling this Boolean creates a single security domain for all http-labeled content. For more information, see SELinux by Example listed under the Related information and downloads, on page 15 section. httpd_enable_cgi If your content does not use the Common Gateway Interface (CGI) protocol, set this Boolean to off. If you are unsure about using CGI in the Web server, try setting it to off and examine the log entries in the /var/log/messages file.The following example shows an error message from /var/log/messages resulting from SELinux blocking httpd capital punishment of a CGI script May 28 154837 localhost setroubleshoot SELinux is preventing the http daemon from executing cgi scri pts. For complete SELinux messages. run sealert -l 0fdf4649-60df-47b5-bfd5-a72772207adc Entering sealert -l 0fdf4649-60df-47b5-bfd5-a72772207adc produces the following output Summary SELinux is preventing the http daemon from executing cgi scripts. Detailed Description SELinux has denied the http daemon from executing a cgi script. httpd can be setup in a locked down mode where cgi scripts are not allowed to be executed. If the httpd server has been setup to not execute cgi scripts, this could signal a intrusion attempt.Allowing Access If you want httpd to be able to run cgi scripts, you need to turn on the httpd_enable_cgi Boolean setsebool -P httpd_enable_cgi=1 10 Blueprints First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) Hardening the Apache Web Server The following command will allow this access setsebool -P httpd_enable_cgi=1 Additional Information Source Context rootsystem_rhttpd_t Target Context rootobject_rhttpd_sys_script_exec_t Target Objects /var/www/cgi-bin dir Sour ce httpd Source Path httpd Port Host localhost. localdomain Source RPM Packages httpd-2. 2. 3-22. el5 Target RPM Packages httpd-2. 2. 3-22. el5 Policy RPM selinux-policy-2. 4. 6-203. l5 Selinux Enabled True Policy Type targeted MLS Enabled True Enforcing Mode Enforcing Plugin Name httpd_enable_cgi Host Name localhost. localdomain Platform Linux localhost. localdomain 2. 6. 18-128. 1. 10. el5 1 SMP Wed Apr 29 135517 EDT 2009 i686 i686 Alert Count 1 First Seen Thu May 28 154836 2009 Last Seen Thu May 28 154836 2009 Local ID 0fdf4649-60df-47b5-bfd5-a72772207adc Line Numbers Raw Audit Messages host=localhost. localdomain type=AVC msg=audit(1243540116. 963248) avc denied getattr for pid=2595 comm=httpd path=/var/www/cgi-bin dev=dm-0 ino=5527166 scontext=rootsystem_rhttpd_ts0 tcontext=rootobject_rhttpd_sys_script_exec_ts0 tclass=dir host=localhost. localdomain type=SYSCALL msg=audit(1243540116. 63248) arch=40000003 syscall=196 success=no exit=-13 a0=8bd0a88 a1=bfc790bc a2=4d0ff4 a3=2008 171 items=0 ppid=2555 pid=2595 auid=4294967295 uid=48 gid=48 euid=48 suid=48 fsuid=48 egid=48 sgid=48 fsgid=48 tty=(none) ses=4294967295 comm=httpd exe=httpd subj=rootsystem_rhttpd_ts0 key=(null) At the end of the previous output, listed under the Raw Audit Messages are these lines scontext=rootsystem_rhttpd_ts0 tcontext=rootobject_rhttpd_sys_script_exec_ts0 tclass=dir This output shows you that httpd attempted to access a subdirectory with the httpd_sys_script_exec_t context type. This type is the context type of /var/www/cgi-bin, the directory where httpd looks for CGI scripts. The httpd daemon, with a httpd_t context type, was unable to access this subdirectory because the httpd_enable_cgi variable is set to off.With this configuration, SELinux does not allow a user or process of type httpd_t to access a directory, file, or process of type httpd_sys_script_exec_t. Therefore, the http daemon was denied access to the CGI script located in /var/www/cgi-bin. If you find similar messa ges in your log file, set the httpd_enable_cgi Boolean to on. httpd_builtin_scripting If you did not configure Apache to load scripting modules by changing the /etc/httpd/conf/ httpd. conf configuration file, set this Boolean to off. If you are unsure, turn httpd_builtin_scripting to off and check the /var/log/messages file for any httpd-related SELinux warnings. See the description of httpd_enable_cgi for an example. PHP and other scripting modules run with the same level of access as the http daemon.Therefore, turning httpd_builtin_scripting to off reduces the amount of access accessible if the Web server is compromised. To turn off all six of these Booleans and write the values to the policy file by using the setsebool -P command follow these steps 1. Enter the setsebool -P command First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) 11 emailprotected setsebool -P httpd_can_sendmail=0 httpd_enable_homedirs=0 httpd_tty_comm=0 httpd_unified=0 httpd_enable_cgi=0 httpd_builtin_script ing=0 2. Check all the Boolean settings related to httpd by entering getsebool a grep httpd. The following output shows that all Boolean are set to off, including the six previously described variables which default to on. emailprotected $ getsebool -a grep httpd allow_httpd_anon_write off allow_httpd_bugzilla_script_anon_write off allow_httpd_mod_auth_pam off allow_httpd_nagios_script_anon_write off allow_httpd_prewikka_script_anon_write off allow_httpd_squid_script_anon_write off allow_httpd_sys_script_anon_write off httpd_builtin_scripting off httpd_can_network_connect off httpd_can_network_connect_db off httpd_can_network_relay off httpd_can_sendmail off httpd_disable_trans off httpd_enable_cgi off httpd_enable_ftp_server off httpd_enable_homedirs off httpd_rotatelogs_disable_trans off httpd_ssi_exec off httpd_suexec_disable_trans off httpd_tty_comm off httpd_unified off httpd_use_cifs off httpd_use_nfs off 3. Use a Web browser or wget to make another re quest to the httpd daemon for the index. html file and you should succeed. Rebooting your machine does not change this configuration. This completes the necessary basic SELinux settings for hardening a Web server with static content. Next, look at hardening scripts accessed by the http daemon. Related reference Scope, requirements, and support on page 1 This blueprint applies to System x running Linux and PowerLinux. You can learn more about the systems to which this information applies.Hardening CGI scripts with SELinux In the previous section, you used SELinux Booleans to disable scripting because the Web server used only static content. Beginning with that configuration, you can enable CGI scripting and use SELinux to secure the scripts. 1. Confirm that your Web server is configured as described in section Securing Apache (static content only) on page 9. 2. Red Hat Enterprise Linux provides a CGI script that you can use for testing. You can find the script at /usr/lib/perl5/5. 8. 8/CGI/eg/tryit. cgi. Copy this script to the /var/www/cgi-bin/ directory, as follows emailprotected $ cp /usr/lib/perl5/5. 8. 8/CGI/eg/tryit. gi /var/www/cgi-bin/ 3. Make sure that the first line of the tryit. cgi script contains the correct path to the perl binary. From the which perl output shown below, the path should be changed to /usr/bin/perl. emailprotected which perl /usr/bin/perl emailprotected head -1 /var/www/cgi-bin/tryit. cgi /usr/local/bin/perl 4. Confirm that /var/www/cgi-bin is assigned the httpd_sys_script_exec_t context type as follows emailprotected $ ls -Z /var/www/ grep cgi-bin drwxr-xr-x root root rootobject_rhttpd_sys_script_exec_t cgi-bin 12 Blueprints First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) Hardening the Apache Web Server 5.Allow and confirm read and execute permission for the tryit. cgi script to all users emailprotected cgi-bin chmod 555 /var/www/cgi-bin/tryit. cgi emailprotected cgi-bin ls -Z -r-xr-xr-x root root rootobject_rhttpd_sys_scr ipt_exec_t tryit. cgi 6. Confirm that /var/www/cgi-bin/tryit. cgi is assigned the httpd_sys_script_exec_t context type emailprotected $ ls -Z /var/www/cgi-bin/tryit. cgi -r-xr-xr-x root root rootobject_rhttpd_sys_script_exec_t /var/www/cgi-bin/tryit. cgi 7. Enable CGI scripting in SELinux and confirm that it is enabled emailprotected cgi-bin$ setsebool httpd_enable_cgi=1 emailprotected cgi-bin$ getsebool httpd_enable_cgi httpd_enable_cgi on 8.Open a Web browser and type the Web server address into the location bar. Include the /cgi-bin/tryit. cgi in the URL. For example, type http//192. 168. 1. 100/cgi-bin/tryit. cgi. The tryit. cgi script should return output similar to Figure 1 Figure 1. Figure 1 A simplistic Example 9. Provide test answers to the form fields and click Submit Query. The tryit. cgi script should return output similar to Figure 2 First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) 13 Figure 2. Figure 2 A Simple Example with results Related reference Scope, requirem ents, and support on page 1 This blueprint applies to System x running Linux and PowerLinux. You can learn more about the systems to which this information applies. 14Blueprints First Steps with Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) Hardening the Apache Web Server Appendix. Related information and downloads Related information v Wikipedia Security-Enhanced Linux http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Selinux v Bell-La Padula model http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Bell-La_Padula_model v NSA Security-Enhanced Linux http//www. nsa. gov/research/selinux/index. shtml v Managing Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 presentation http//people. redhat. com/dwalsh/SELinux/Presentations/ManageRHEL5. pdf v developerWorks Security Blueprint Community Forum http//www. ibm. com/developerworks/forums/forum. jspa? forumID=1271 v Red Hat Enterprise Linux 4 Red Hat SELinux Guide http//www. linuxtopia. rg/online_books/redhat_selinux_guide/rhlcommon-section-0055. html v F. Mayer, K. MacMillan, D. Caplan, SELinux By Example emp loy Security Enhanced Linux Prentice Hall, 2007 Related reference Scope, requirements, and support on page 1 This blueprint applies to System x running Linux and PowerLinux. You can learn more about the systems to which this information applies. 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